We Just Learn Differently!
A Guide for Academic Staff when Teaching
Students with a Learning Disability.
CONTENTS
Acknowledgements
Introduction
Part 1 What
is Learning Disability ?
1.1
Definition
1.2
Most common elements of learning disability
1.3
Indicators of learning disability
1.4
Effects of learning disability
1.5
Implications of learning disability
1.6
Diagnosis assessment
Part 2 What
can be done ?
2.1
Strategies and accommodations
2.2
Teaching strategies
2.3
Assessment accommodations
2.4
Resources
REFERENCES
APPENDIX
-
Self-help strategies for students
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
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The motivation
to produce "We Just Learn Differently!" came primarily from knowing
people with learning disability who, with understanding and relevant
assistance, have been able to realise their full learning potential.
The aim in producing
this booklet was to compile much of the existing information on learning
disability at university level into a concise, "user- friendly package"
that will assist academic staff.
I wish to acknowledge
the research of all those named in the references, but in particular
Gillian Bruce of Monash University who helped spark an increased personal
interest in the area of learning disability.
Thanks also go
to the academic staff, Learning Skills advisers and Student Services
colleagues who have provided valuable feedback during the development
of this resource.
Mike Spurr
Disability Adviser
Student Services
INTRODUCTION
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Each year, increasing
numbers of intelligent people with learning disability (LD) are enrolling
at University. Until quite recently, learning disability was known by
the name "dyslexia". It is now recognised that there are many varieties
of dyslexia amongst an even greater number of types of learning disabilities.
Whilst people
with learning disability experience learning difficulties, the two are
not one and the same. Learning difficulties can be overcome with remediation
and relevant skills development. Learning disability cannot in itself
be overcome/cured, but inclusive teaching and learning strategies, assessment
accommodations and assistive technology can provide the means for people
with learning disability to learn effectively.
People like Albert
Einstein, Whoopi Goldberg, Winston Churchill, Tom Cruise and Kerry Packer
have made significant contributions to society whilst having learning
disabilities. History records that most of these people have "done it
the hard way" in terms of academic learning. We now have more understanding
of learning disability, better teaching strategies have been developed
and new technology offers improved assistance.
When reading
this document, it is crucial to keep the following points in mind:
- The content
focuses on students with Learning DISABILITY, and not impoverished education,
lack of ability, attempting to gain an advantage or laziness.
- There is absolutely
no intention to request an "easing of academic standards" for ANY students.
- Staff are not
expected to, nor should they attempt to, diagnose LD. That must be done
by an Educational Psychologist.
The aim of this
document is twofold:
- To assist academic
staff to understand learning disability and thus the people who have
it.
- To assist academic
staff to create a learning environment that is inclusive of students
with LD whilst maintaining academic standards.
The University
of Tasmania is committed to a policy of equal opportunity in education
and employment. It has demonstrated a written commitment to eliminating
discrimination through its policy of "Equal Opportunity for People with
Disabilities".
The
University of Tasmania is committed to a policy of equal opportunity in
education and employment. Consequently it is committed to ensuring that
students and staff with disabilities are accorded complete and equitable
access to all facets of the life of the University as far as circumstances
reasonably allow.
The University
accepts that it has a legal and moral responsibility to eliminate from
its structures and practices any source of direct or indirect discrimination
affecting people with permanent or temporary disabilities.
It is hoped that
the following information assists you when teaching students with learning
disabilities who just learn differently.
Part
1. WHAT IS LEARNING DISABILITY?
1. 1 DEFINITION
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The University
of Alberta's teaching program has adopted a definition of learning disability
for an adult population proposed by a special committee of the Canadian
Parliament. The definition is as follows:
A disorder
in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding
or in using language, spoken or written. This may manifest itself in an
imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, or spell, or do mathematical
calculations.
This term
includes such conditions as perceptual handicaps, brain injury, minimal
brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. It does not
include learning problems caused by intellectual impairment, emotional
disturbance, environmental, cultural or economic disadvantage.
The Committee
has operationalised this definition as follows:
The learning
disabled adult is one who meets these criteria:
- He/she manifests
significant difficulty in one or more of the basic academic areas, that
is, reading, written language and/or mathematics.
- The academic
ability is discrepantly and significantly at variance with his/her general
intellectual ability.
- When the
student is assessed with a battery of psychological and educational
tests, the results suggest the presence of central nervous system processing
difficulties.
- There is
no other primary handicapping condition present (for example, mental
retardation, emotional disturbance, sensory handicap, or history of
adverse educational opportunities or cultural disadvantage), to which
the academic dysfunction can be attributed.
Kovach, Vosalho
& Whyte (1991)
1. 2 MOST
COMMON ELEMENTS OF LEARNING DISABILITY
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- Under-achievement
(usually shown as a discrepancy between aptitude and achievement, but
possible intra-individual achievement differences, eg. between language
and mathematics)
- Central nervous
system dysfunction: problems with analysis, integration and storage
of information
- Problems with
learning processes: disruption to processes of memory, attention or
cognition
- Specification
of particular conceptual problems as potential learning disabilities:
thinking, reasoning and organisational skills
- Specification
of academic or language problems (research mainly on language)
- Specification
of other conditions as a potential learning disability: spatial orientation,
integration, and motor skills
- Allowance for
the multi-handicapping nature of learning disabilities (some definitions
recognise the possibility of co-existence)
- A life-long
disability: Not 'out-grown' or cured by intervention
Hammill (1991)
1. 3 INDICATORS
OF LEARNING DISABILITY
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- Problems in
visual or auditory processing of information.
- Problems in
some aspects of memory.
- Difficulties
in understanding or using spoken language.
- Problems in
visual motor integration (handwriting, catching).
- Problems in
spatial orientation (distance, left/right, sense of direction).
- Organisational
problems to do with details or time.
- Problems in
attention (now usually treated as Attention Deficit Disorder).
Hammill (1991)
1. 4 EFFECTS
OF LEARNING DISABILITY
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Before establishing
appropriate accommodations for a student with LD, it is useful to begin
with a brief description of the likely effects of LD on adults who undertake
tertiary study. The effects of LD may be evident in many areas. A student
with LD may have difficulties with:
Organisation
- Time management
- Initiating and
sustaining sufficient effort on a task
- Using a library
- Taking notes
in lectures
- Examination
strategies (eg being unable to use computer marking sheets)
- Interpreting
signs and negotiating routes around campus
- Understanding
the steps involved in planning a task (an essay or a birthday party)
- Analysing and
synthesising information
Auditory Processing
- Following the
sequence and organisation of a lecture, or in understanding instructions
- Interpreting
information presented orally
- Hearing sounds
over background noise (and therefore being easily distracted)
- Distinguishing
between similar but different sounds
- Fatigue when
listening to a talk or lecture
Visual Processing
- Seeing differences
between similar letters or objects
- Seeing a specific
image within a competing background - perceiving distance
- Visual tracking
(words may appear to move around on the page)
- Reading (may
be slow and deliberate and comprehension impaired)
- Legibility (writing
speed and spelling are affected, particularly under the time and stress
constraints imposed by examinations, eg printing rather than cursive,
and overuse of upper case)
Conceptual
Problems
- Judging non-verbal
language (eg interpreting facial expressions or body language)
- Understanding
idiom and metaphor
- Predicting consequences
- Rigidity of
thinking
- Social skills
and social relationships
- Sustaining focused
attention in social or academic situations
Memory
- Visual memory
(inability to remember things that have been seen many times before)
- Auditory memory
(short and/or long term memory may be affected)
- Remembering
a series of letters, especially with non-phonetic words
Vogel et al (1993)
note that the high proportion of adults with spelling difficulties attests
to the frequency of this type of memory deficit.
Motor Problems
(Sensorimotor or Sensory Integrative Functioning )
- Hand-eye coordination
- Large muscle
control resulting in clumsiness or awkwardness
- Small muscle
control resulting in poor handwriting or a tendency to misjudge distance
Spatial Organisation
- Perceiving the
dimensions of space
- Distinguishing
left from right or north from south on a map
1. 5 IMPLICATIONS
OF LEARNING DISABILITY
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Academic Performance
- Intra-individual
discrepancies in academic performance (students with learning disabilities
may perform extremely well in some academic areas, but very poorly in
others)
- A discrepancy
between academic performance and perceived intelligence (students may
clearly have a strong grasp of concepts when discussing them orally,
but be unable to demonstrate this in a written examination)
Bruce, McLean
& Powell (1995)
Emotional
Reactions
A student with
LD may:
- Experience excessive
test anxiety
- Believe that
no amount of effort will lead to success
- Have a passive
attitude to learning
- Deny difficulties
- Be very sensitive
to criticism
- Resist or refuse
help
- Be easily frustrated
- Be capable of
great effort when motivated
- Exhibit excessive
dependence on others, eg instructor
- Have self-concept
problems
- Have difficulty
tolerating tension
Kovach, Vosalho
& Whyte (1991)
Social Implications
A student with
LD may exhibit:
- Inappropriate
social behaviour
- Limited eye
contact
- Uneasiness in
relating to authority figures
- Problems expressing
thoughts and feelings
Bruce, McLean
& Powell (1995)
As a result of
social and emotional difficulties, students with LD may appear to lack
motivation and experience problems establishing interpersonal relationships
with staff and other students.
Due to lack of
self esteem, poor organisational skills and a lifetime of frustration
from having to try to explain their difficulties students may miss personal
engagements or appointments. Behaviour adapted to cover the outward
appearance of any problems may also include stretching the truth.
1. 6 EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY ASSESSMENT
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The heterogeneous
nature of learning disabilities means the needs of each individual student
with learning disabilities will be different. Every adult with LD has
a unique profile of abilities and deficiencies related to a lifetime
of compensating for their disability. Professional assessment by an
educational psychologist is important in helping to identify each individual's
requirements. An important accommodation for one student may well disadvantage
another.
Students who
have not been assessed recently should have an assessment which identifies
the nature of their learning disability and strengths. The assessment
also makes recommendations for students and staff at the University
of Tasmania (including types of accommodations required). The University's
Disability Advisers can arrange assessments for students with suspected
and previously undiagnosed LD. At present, there is no charge for this
service.
Part
2. WHAT CAN BE DONE?
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It is only after
an assessment has been conducted by an educational psychologist and
deficiencies solely related to LD have been accurately identified that
course and, in particular, assessment accommodations be made available.
Two further steps are essential to ensure effective accommodation of
learning disabilities. These are:
- matching the
students' needs with appropriate accommodations; and
- implementing
the accommodations.
Brinkerhoff et
al (1992) suggest that an assessment of the appropriateness of the accommodation
request should be based on knowledge of the student's disability, the
impact of the disability on performance, and the effect that auxiliary
aids have on assessment. They add: 'it is the faculty members' role
to ensure that the proposed accommodations do not have the affect of
"watering down" the curriculum or substantially altering standards.'
2.1 STRATEGIES
AND ACCOMMODATIONS
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This section
outlines a number of strategies and accommodations which can be implemented
by academic staff and administrators in order to assist students with
LD to achieve their educational goals. A number of the following strategies
may already be common practice within your school.
In addressing
the needs of students with LD the emphasis is on 'good' rather than
necessarily 'extra' teaching approaches. In fact, most students with
LD can perform successfully after minor adjustments or modifications
to teaching and assessment methods. Invariably, what is 'good' for students
with LD is also good for all students.
Accommodating
students with LD should not entail reducing educational standards and
requirements. Rather the aim may be to:
(a) to enhance
students' learning through modified teaching methods and the use of
adaptive technology and educational materials;
(b) to provide
the opportunity for assessment and examination procedures which allow
the student to fairly demonstrate ability and knowledge.
Some aspects
of LD can be addressed by using a variety of teaching methods which
most academic staff use as a matter of course. However, these have been
included amongst the strategies listed below in order to emphasise their
importance to this group of students. Strategies which are of particular
value to students with LD have been marked with an asterisk.
2.2 TEACHING
STRATEGIES
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Before Semester:
Preparing and Planning Lectures, Seminars and Tutorials
- Provide students
with booklists, course outlines and a schedule of assignments. A list
of the pertinent study skills for the subject matter would be very helpful.
- Encourage students
with LD to seek assistance and to identify themselves to academic staff.
- Make provisions
for key course texts to be taped and kept in the relevant campus library.
(Taping takes up to 9 weeks - Contact the Disability Adviser).
- Announce reading
assignments well in advance to cater for those students who require
alternative format materials.
- Provide information
about any changes in the lecture/tutorial schedule, assignments or examinations
orally and in writing.
- Provide guides
which help students with practical tasks. For example, a guide to essay
writing which outlines preferred footnoting methods, organisation of
bibliographical material etc.
During Semester: Giving Lectures, Seminars and Tutorials
- Facilitate audio-taping
of lectures.
- Make summary
copies or outlines of lecture content available to supplement the students'
own lecture notes.
- Use demonstrations
and concrete examples where appropriate. Relate new or abstract concepts
to everyday life.
- Provide students
with study guides that direct them to key themes and arguments in their
reading.
- Use a variety
of teaching styles and methods incorporating as many mediums (appealing
to sight and sound) as possible when presenting material.
- Explain complex
ideas as clearly and simply as possible - repeat and rephrase explanations
and information. Some disciplines are circumscribed by specialised terminology
which cannot be reduced. In such cases, a lexicon of relevant and technical
words would be very helpful.
- Use a variety
of teaching aids: for example, overhead projectors, video tapes and
graphics.
- Be sensitive
about students with identified learning disabilities being self-conscious
about speaking or reading in lectures and tutorials.
- Accommodate
students with a limited memory for number facts by allowing them to
use a calculator. Whilst not appropriate in a lecture, this technique
could be used in a tutorial or a practical session.
- Where appropriate,
use diagrams or charts to disseminate information and provide copies
for students with LD. Information presented in this manner may stay
longer in short-term memory than prose.
- Encourage students
with LD to sit close to the front.
- Encourage students
to consult academic staff for any clarification of class material.
- Offer tutorials
that deal with particularly difficult aspects of the course.
- Encourage students
to form co-operative learning groups in which to discuss and review
class material.
- Provide students
with a copy of the Self-help Strategies for Students in Appendix 2 (Master
copy enclosed for reproduction).
- Encourage students
who are experiencing difficulties which appear to resemble LD to consult
the Disability Adviser and/or the Learning Skills Adviser.
2. 3 ASSESSMENT
ACCOMMODATIONS
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Assignments
- Allow for alternative
assignment formats: for example, oral reports, demonstrations or use
of a tape recorder.
- Permit time
extensions for written assignments.
- Consider alternative
or supplementary assignments such as point form, taped interviews, slide
presentations, photographic essays or models.
- Allow students
with LD to use an editor for assignments and/or give separate marks
for content and structure.
- Provide feedback
on completed work in appropriate formats: for example, oral, typed or
on tape.
- Let students
with LD know as early as possible if they are not reaching required
standards.
Examinations
- Provide practice
exam questions that demonstrate exam format.
- Allow for the
use of alternative modes of assessment: for example, allowing students
to demonstrate knowledge and understanding in oral or taped examinations
and class presentations.
- If required,
allow for alternative examination locations, for example, in a separate
room.
- Permit time
extensions for examinations.
- Allow the use
of aids and equipment such as dictionaries, word processors (with spell
check programs), scribes and calculators.
- In examinations
where word processors cannot be used, academic staff may need to tolerate
deficiencies in handwriting and spelling in some students with LD.
It must be reiterated
that while students with LD should receive appropriate accommodations
and support, it is not suggested that basic or 'inherent' requirements
of a course be reduced. Faculties will need to consider this issue in
relation to each course they offer.
Briscoe et al
(1993)
2. 4 RESOURCES
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The Disability
Adviser Office, located in Student Services, is a ready resource for
both students and staff. Services and resources available for both academic
staff and students through this office include:
- A free Peer
Note-taking service (for lectures & tutorials).
- The capacity
to transcribe hard copy text into accessible format (audio tape, electronic/disk).
- Students for
Equal Access to Learning (SEAL) Room - fully resourced lab.
- Specific computer
programs (IBM - Text Help, Mac - CoWriter).
- Auxiliary aids
and equipment loan (Audio Tape recorders, FM Transmitters, etc).
- Library assistance
Cards.
- A wealth of
current information related to disability in education.
The Disability
Adviser is available to academic staff in an advisory capacity, as an
advocate for students with disabilities and as a service and resource
provider for both.
Please contact:
Mike Spurr
Launceston & Burnie
Phone: (03) 6324 3787
E-mail: Michael.Spurr@UTAS.edu.au
Doug McGinn
Hobart
Phone: (03) 6226 2697
E-mail: Doug.McGinn@UTAS.edu.au
REFERENCES
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Bruce, G., McLean,
P., Powell, J., (1995), Learning Disabilities in Higher Education: Project
Report, Melbourne & Monash Universities, Victoria.
Brinkerhoff,
L.C., Shaw, S.F., & McGuire, J.M., (1993), Promoting Postsecondary
Education for Students with Learning Disabilities, Pro Ed, Texas.
Briscoe, G.,
Bruce, G., Edison, R., Hore, T., James, & M., Triggs, T., 1993,
Learning Disabilities and Higher Education: Guidelines for Working Effectively
with Students with Learning Disabilities, Monash University, Victoria.
Hammill, D.D.,
1990, 'On defining learning disabilities: an emerging consensus', Journal
of Learning Disabilities.
King, W., &
Jarrow, J., (1990), Testing Accommodations for Students with Disabilities,
AHSPPE Publications, Columbus.
Vogel, S., Hruby,
A., & Adelman, P., (1993), Educational and psychological factors
in successful and unsuccessful college students, Learning Disabilities
Research and Practice.
Kovach, Vosalho
& Whyte, 1991, Diagnosing Postsecondary Students With Learning Disability,
University of Alberta, Canada.
APPENDIX
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SELF-HELP STRATEGIES
FOR STUDENTS
WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES
- talk to the
academic staff or disability adviser about services and accommodations
before the semester begins;
- set realistic
study goals and priorities;
- keep only one
diary or calendar for all appointments and dates of assignments and
examinations;
- obtain a course
outline prior to commencement of semester;
- use a reader
service or ask to have essential texts transcribed into accessible format
(electronic/disk, audio tape or large print);
- work backwards
from important deadlines allowing at least 2 hours in the library or
at home for every hour in class;
- seek assistance
from a counsellor or mentor with developing strategies for learning
more effectively and coping with any stress associated with assignments
or examinations;
- plan study time
and breaks on a daily basis as well as weekly and for the semester;
- work in a quiet
study area away from distractions;
- join or form
a co-operative learning group in each subject/unit;
- participate
in reading and/or writing skills classes to develop your skills to maximum
potential;
- seek other skills
training eg time-management, note-taking, memorising, examination preparation
and techniques;
- where possible,
do prescribed reading in advance;
- attend every
class/tutorial/laboratory session;
- sit at the front
of classes where visual and auditory cues are clearer;
- tape-record
lectures (ask permission first);
- have notes transcribed
and/or refine notes as soon as possible after classes;
- compare information
records and notes with peers;
- make an effort
to participate actively in class;
- write down questions
for discussion later with tutor or supervisor;
- ensure understanding
of assessment requirements before starting;
- check/negotiate
required structure and content of assignments;
- use pocket spellers
or available adaptive equipment and software such as TextHELP or Co-Writer
to check spelling and grammar;
- gain technical
skills, eg in the use of catalogues or equipment;
- consider asking
someone to proof read your written assignments;
- consult teacher/tutor/supervisor
when ever necessary;
- seek assessment
accommodations from teaching staff, the Examination Officer or Disability
Adviser; and
- ask a mentor
or friend from a co-operative learning group to help monitor your progress.
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